Behind Smelling Salts

  If you’ve ever watched powerlifters, athletes or even old movies where someone faints, you’ve probably seen smelling salts make an appearance. One quick whiff and suddenly, the person snaps to attention. But what exactly is happening inside the body to create that sudden jolt of alertness? 

What are smelling salts? 

Smelling salts are typically made of ammonium carbonate or diluted ammonia gas. When exposed to air usually by crushing a packet or opening a bottle they release ammonia vapor, which is extremely pungent And irritating.That irritation is the whole point. 

Ammonia irritates the nasal mucosa

When you inhale ammonia vapor it instantly irritates the mucous membranes inside the nose and upper airway. Ammonia is an alkaline chemical and even at low concentrations, it activates TRPA1 receptors a type of sensory nerve receptor that responds to noxious chemicals. I think of TRPA1 like the body’s built in alarm system for chemical irritants. 

Pain and irritation trigger reflexive inhalation 

Those irritated receptors send rapid signals up the trigeminal nerve one of the major cranial nerves responsible for facial sensation. The rain interprets this as “something intense is happening!” And reacts immediately. This triggers a strong inhalation reflex, sometimes called the “gasp reflex.” Why does this matter? Because that sudden inhalation brings in a rush of oxygen and jolts the body into a state of heightened alertness. 

The sympathetic nervous system activates 

The irritation-> nerve activation-> gasp reflex sequence sends a sudden burst of signals through the sympathetic nervous system( the fight or flight system).

Physiologically this leads to: 

-increased respiratory rate

Faster heart rate

Increased blood pressure and heightened alertness

A momentary boost in arousal and focus

Why do Athletes use smelling salts? 

Athletes especially powerlifters, football players, and hockey players use smelling salts before big lifts or moments requiring explosive performance. The benefits are not magical but they are real: 

- brief boost in alertness 

- increased focus before a strength based task

Strong mind muscles engagement due to heightened arousal

Are smelling salts safe?

Used occasionally and at a distance smelling salts are generally considered safe for healthy people bit they’re not recommended for frequent or long term use. 

Possible risk include: 

Burning or irritation of nasal passages 

Headaches

Aggravation of asthma or breathing disorders 

Dependence for performance (psychological) 

The bottom line 

Smelling salts “work” because ammonia irritates the nose triggering nerve reflexes that rapidly activate the body sympathetic nervous system. It’s a small chemical shock that makes the brain instantly alert. They’re not substitute for rest training, or medical care in the moment they’re incredibly effective at doing what they’re designed to do: wake the brain up with urgency. 

Sources:

    •    WebMD — “Smelling Salts: Benefits, Risks and Side Effects”  

    •    Medical Newstoday — “Smelling salts: Uses, safety, and side effects”  

    •    LiveScience — “How do smelling salts work?”  

    •    Britannica — “How Do Smelling Salts Work?”  

    •    Cleveland Clinic — “What Happens When You Inhale Smelling Salts, and Is It Safe?”  

    •    Scholarly article: “Smelling salts” (2006) — explains the ammonia-gas irritation mechanism and inhalation reflex.  

    •    Scholarly article on sensory irritation: “Trigeminal TRPs and the scent of pain” — describes how irritants (like ammonia) activate nerve endings in airway mucosa.  

    •    Recent review: “Effects of Ammonia Inhalants in Humans: A Review of the Current Literature Regarding the Benefits, Risks and Efficacy” (2025).  

Fluent in five, master of none

Growing up speaking five different languages sometimes felt like juggling too many things at once. I’d switch from language to another depending on who I was talking to, but I always wondered: do I actually know any of these languages well? Once I started learning about neuroscience and physiology, I realized that my brain has been physically shaped by the languages I speak. 

Research has shown that people who speak multiple languages have structural differences in certain brain areas involved in cognitive control, language, and attention. For example, people who speak multiple languages show increased gray-matter density in the left parietal cortex, which is closely tied to language learning and processing (Mechelli et al, 2004). To me, it’s interesting that every time I struggled to switch between languages, my brain was actually strengthening itself. Additionally, multilingual brains are constantly doing behind-the-scenes processing, activating one language when necessary while suppressing the others. This constant juggling strengthens a variety of skills like focusing, attention, and filtering distractions (Bialystok et al, 2012). 

One of the other things I’ve always noticed is how I feel like a slightly different person depending on which language I’m speaking. Neuroscientists and psychologists actually studied this phenomenon. Each language carries different emotional memories and cultural expectations, and switching languages activates different neural networks linked to those experiences. So it’s not that you become a different person, it’s more like a different side of your identity becomes highlighted depending on the language you’re using. 

After learning more about the physiology of multilingualism, my perspective has shifted. What I previously interpreted as a lack is actually a normal outcome of how a multilingual brain functions. It’s not a flaw, it’s just the way the system works. 

References

Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Luk, G. (2012). Bilingualism: Consequences for mind and brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(4), 240–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001

Mechelli, A., Crinion, J. T., Noppeney, U., O’Doherty, J., Ashburner, J., Frackowiak, R. S., & Price, C. J. (2004). Structural plasticity in the bilingual brain. Nature, 431(7010), 757. https://doi.org/10.1038/431757a

Sunlight, a cancer drug?

 

At the age of 18, I believed the healthiest choice was to avoid the sun almost entirely. I wore sunscreen everyday, reapplied it religiously, stayed in the shade;it felt responsible at the time. Years later, a routine blood test showed I had developed a vitamin D deficiency. Not long after, I came across this video on Youtube of a young Japanese woman whose situation was even more intense. She had taken sun protection to an extreme level, avoiding sunlight almost entirely, and eventually developed five spinal fractures due to severe low bone density. Doctors mentioned her bone density resembled that of someone with osteoporosis, despite her being 26. Her story didn’t surprise me. Without adequate sunlight, the body can’t properly synthesize vitamin D, which is crucial for bone health, immune function, and proper cell regulation. 

What surprised me the most was learning that vitamin D may play a role in lowering the risk of cancer. Researchers have found that higher blood levels of vitamin D are associated with reduced incidence of several cancers including breast, prostate, and colorectal cancers (Garland et al, 2006), This is due to vitamin D’s ability to reduce abnormal cell differentiation, promote apoptosis in certain malignant cells, and restrain the formation of new blood vessels that feed cancer (Feldman et al, 2014). 

This doesn’t mean unlimited sun exposure is harmless, as we already know excessive UV exposure is linked to skin cancer. However, other studies showed that regions with higher sunlight exposure tend to have lower rates of several cancers, and this is attributed to greater vitamin D synthesis (Grant et al, 2009). 

This made me rethink my relationship with the sun. Like most things in life, it’s about balance. People often talk about the dangers of too much sun, but we rarely talk about how too little sun can also affect our health in ways that aren’t obvious until later. 

References 

Garland, C. F., Garland, F. C., Gorham, E. D., Lipkin, M., Newmark, H., Mohr, S. B., & Holick, M. F. (2006). The role of vitamin D in cancer prevention. American Journal of Public Health, 96(2), 252–261. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2004.045260

Feldman, D., Krishnan, A. V., Swami, S., Giovannucci, E., & Feldman, B. J. (2014). The role of vitamin D in reducing cancer risk and progression. Nature Reviews Cancer, 14(5), 342–357. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc3691

Grant, W. B., & Mohr, S. B. (2009). Ecological studies of ultraviolet B, vitamin D, and cancer since 2000. Anticancer Research, 29(9), 3495–3506.

I HAVE RINGWORM #StopTheStigma

Yes you read the title correctly this is not clickbait! When I facetimed my mom over Thanksgiving Break to check in and catch up, she noticed and made a comment about the rash on my left wrist, saying very bluntly, "Dude. You have ringworm." I laughed it off at first, explaining that it was simply from wearing my Fitbit for too long. But when I paused and reflected, I realized that this 'rash' had persisted for a week - way longer than the typical fitbit-induced red spot ever had. So I googled it - and the images were exactly like what I saw on my own body: 3 red coin-sized circles on my wrist. I was shocked and extremely disgusted at first, freaking out and questioning how I was even infected (was it from my new puppy? the cat who lives on campus I always pet? the mats at my gym? one of my roommates even??) But the more research I did, the more I realized that the severity and 'gross-ness' of ringworm is massively played up.

Ringworm is not even caused by worms! I was under the impression that some nasty parasitic creature was writhing around inside my system. But ringworm (tinea corporis) is actually caused by a fungus! A 2024 review in Clinical Dermatology explains how the fungi thrive in warm, moist environments (like the layer of skin underneath my fitbit!) and literally anyone can get it, no matter how hygienic you are! (I swear I am not gross)

The rash forms because the fungi locks itself into the superficial epidermis, triggering a localized inflammatory response. That's what causes those scary looking red circles. The good news? They are treated simply by applying a topical antifungal cream. I got mine off Amazon and started treatment immediately.

So yes, ringworm is visually alarming and unfortunately inconvenient, but way smaller of a deal than I ever realized. When I told my groupchat I had ringworm, I expected a dramatic reaction and to get some laughs, because who has ever even heard of such a thing! I thought I was having such a crazy, individual experience. But to my surprise, multiple of them have had it themselves! One from her guinea pig, one from his cat, and one girl never really figured out where she got it from! And get this - according to the WHO, anywhere from 20-25 percent of the world's population may have a ringworm infection at any given time! So we should stop the stigma (I say that half-jokingly because I genuinely still find so much humor in my current situation) but seriously, be careful what you touch, don't forget to wipe down your gym equipment, and maybe take off your fitbits/apple watches before bed :)

 

Sources:

 

AL-Khikani, Falah Hasan Obayes. Dermatophytosis a Worldwide Contiguous Fungal Infection: Growing Challenge and Few Solutions. Biomedical and Biotechnology Research Journal (BBRJ) 4(2):p 117-122, Apr–Jun 2020. | DOI: 10.4103/bbrj.bbrj_1_20

 

 

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ringworm-(tinea)

Match and ADHD: a caffeine-induced love story

I was diagnosed with ADHD when I was 12 and have always found that a little caffeine boost can really help sharpen my focus, especially if I am trying to get schoolwork done (I downed half a latte with 4 shots of espresso before sitting down to write this). Unfortunately, with the insane caffeine content of some energy drinks (200 up to a whopping 300mg in one can), I find myself getting the jitters if I drink too much at once. Last year during my internship with a culinary company, the dietician shared with me an interesting tidbit about matcha - it's apparently a better way to get a caffeine boost because it releases more slowly into the bloodstream, unlike the immediate, all-at-once rush that a coffee might induce. So as my love for matcha has flourished over the past few months, I decided to research this a bit more to actually understand the mechanisms and why matcha may be a better alternative!

In short, matcha (the green powder mixed with milk to create lattes) contains caffeine as well as L-theanine, an amino acid that impacts the alpha wave activity in our brains. A 2023 review in Nutrition Reviews linked caffeine and L-theanine with improved attention and working memory. Of course this would benefit someone like me with ADHD to help their brain function when completing tasks that require focusing for an extended period of time. L-theanine is especially impactful because it slows the stimulant effects of caffeine, eliminating the typical spike/crash pattern I often experience when I rely on coffees or energy drinks alone.

That slow release helps reduce that jittery feeling I mentioned, and can help sustain a more stable state of concentration and focus. It's like a study hack :)

 

Sources:

Camfield, D. A., Stough, C., Farrimond, J., & Scholey, A. (2014). Acute effects of tea constituents L-theanine, caffeine, and epigallocatechin gallate on cognitive function and mood. Nutrition Reviews, 72(8), 507–522.

 

Dietz, C., Dekker, M. (2017). Effect of green tea phytochemicals on mood and cognition. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 71(6), 532–539.

Am I training my puppy, or is he training me?

 I recently adopted a puppy who I am completely obsessed with, and he just so happens to be my favorite breed, an Australian shepherd. I am a huge fan of this breed for its intelligence, and it has always been my life dream to live in the beautiful state of Colorado with my very own Aussie and teach him tons of tricks. So to be here in Denver with my new pup Cashew and using every free moment I have to fulfill his every need (especially the breed's need for mental stimulation) is a challenge but also literally my dream come true.

As a biology student, I like to think I am in full control of his training, abiding by textbook techniques and classical conditioning. But I'm starting to think that Cashew is training me just as much as I'm training him.

I've trained cashew to instinctively grasp/hold his plush toys when he's seated and I present him one with the verbal cue "Who's your friend?" - that's an example of a trick I taught him. Initially I had to use food to motivate him to perform the task, but now he does it on cue with no reward needed (but still often given anyway because he is perfect and deserves it!)

But Cashew has trained me equally well. When I lay in my bed and he comes by, he cues me by sitting politely next to the bed and giving me an unwavering, dead-eye stare. At this point, I react immediately and pick him up to allow him to snuggle. It's positive reinforcement on both ends!

In our physiology lecture course, we talked about the 'bonding hormone' oxytocin - both dogs and humans experience a release of this hormone when a puppy gazes into a human's eyes. So every time Cashew gives puppy eyes, my own endocrine system is activated!

So officially, I am training Cashew with psychology. But unofficially, Cashew himself has harnessed the power of behavioral psych as well as human physiology, creating his very own human-training program and I seem to be the only student.

 

Sources: Pryor, K. (2019). Reaching the Animal Mind: Clicker Training and What It Teaches Us About All Animals. Scribner.

 

Nagasawa, M., Mitsui, S., En, S., Ohtani, N., Ohta, M., Sakuma, Y., ... & Kikusui, T. (2015). Oxytocin-gaze positive loop and the coevolution of human-dog bonds. Science, 348(6232), 333–336. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1261022

 

Type 3 Diabetes

 For the fourth blog post, I want to bring up an interesting topic that I have found from my externship at the diabetes trials in the Anschutz Medical Campus. And honestly, you all need a break from the sports talk. This extra blog post is catered around introducing a topic that I would like everyone who reads to consider moving forward in how they can view Alzheimer’s Disease. With my externship, we have considered Alzheimer’s Disease to be considered “Type 3 diabetes”. There are some similarities that can be found in diabetes and Alzheimer’s, believe it or not. And because of this, it allows to potentially draw some new medications that could help treat Alzheimer’s. Due to impaired glucose metabolism, the brain involves insulin resistance response. The insulin not being able to regulate glucose properly for energy demands may cause breakdown of important cells. Such breakdowns will lead to impaired cognitive function as memory is destroyed. This directly affects patients who have Alzheimer’s since they cannot think properly or perform regular everyday tasks.

As far as a therapeutic option, I am extremely hopeful we can find a solution to treating Alzheimer’s Disease. I like that there has been a biochemical comparison between insulin resistance and Alzheimer’s. The similarities in the risk factors as well as protein processing makes these pathways worth noting as targets for drugs to potentially treat Alzheimer’s. Really, we ought to be trying anything to find a solution to this disease. And we should also be looking into ways to prevent the transmission of developing Alzheimer’s. If type 2 diabetes makes one more prone to developing Alzheimer’s Disease, then more efforts should be administered to make lifestyle changes so that does not happen. I would like to learn more about Alzheimer’s and I will be monitoring how these trials go in the Spring semester. If I see anything substantial, I will share this with Dr. Campisi and others. Any signs of improvement for people in this condition will be groundbreaking, so I am excited for the possibility of being a part of that.

de la Monte, S. M., & Wands, J. R. (2008). Alzheimer’s disease is type 3 diabetes: Evidence reviewed. Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology, 2(6), 1104–1110.

González, A., Calfío, C., Churruca, M., & Maccioni, R. B. (2022). Glucose metabolism and Alzheimer’s disease: Evidence for a potential diabetes type 3. Alzheimer’s Research & Therapy, 14, 56.

How Braces Really Move Teeth: The Championship Level Biology Behind Your Smile

Do you remember that really annoying time in your life when you had metal in your mouth for about two years, resulting in some unforgettable high school yearbook photos? Back then, it probably felt like treatment was taking forever and you were never going to get your braces off. And sure, it did take a long time but there’s an important reason for that. Understanding how your teeth actually move helps explain why. Many people assume braces simply “pull” teeth into place, when in reality the biology behind tooth movement is far more complex. Knowing what’s happening beneath the surface makes it easier to understand why treatment takes time, why orthodontists rely on gentle, controlled forces, and why orthodontics is much more than wires and brackets pushing and pulling your teeth around.

It All Starts With the Periodontal Ligament (PDL)

All your teeth are anchored in place by a thin, flexible layer of connective tissue. This layer is called your periodontal ligament (PDL). Your tooth is not directly anchored to the bone, instead they “float” slightly within this ligament space. This allows the ligament to act as a cushion to absorb the forces of chewing, it stabilizes the tooth, and it is what orthodontists use to “communicate” with the tooth to move it in their desired direction (Li et al., 2018).

When orthodontists apply light, continuous pressure (through braces or clear aligners), the PDL will become compressed on one side and stretched on the other. This deformation is sensed by cells in the PDL and surrounding bone. This causes a cascade of molecular signals (cytokines, inflammatory mediators, growth factors) that will tell the surrounding bone to remodel itself around the tooth (Li et al., 2021). Therefore teeth are not simply pulled through bone, the bone is constantly remodeling itself under the tooth in response to pressure. In basic terms, your bone is a neat freak. When it notices the tooth is out of alignment, it remodels itself around the tooth to restore balance. 

On the side that is being applied pressure, osteoclasts are signaled to remove bone. This creates space for the tooth to sit in. On the side being stretched, osteoblasts are signaled to build more bone. Stabilizing the tooth in its new position. This remodeling of bone shows that it’s not just mechanical force moving teeth, it’s biology (Li et al., 2018; Nakai et al., 2023).

Why Treatment Takes Time

Anyone who has had braces has probably noticed that the tooth will actually move rather quickly in response to the mechanical pressure added by the orthodontist. So why do you have to stay in braces so long? It’s because although the tooth may move fast, that bone remodeling we just talked about takes time, usually weeks to months. The orthodontist I work for (shout out Dr. Speaks) at the absolute minimum will not begin to apply more pressure for at least 28 days. This time will be different for most people. Adults with fully formed dense bones will take much longer than a child who is still developing. So don’t wait to get your kids braces! (Li et al., 2021; Littlewood et al., 2016; Lyros et al., 2023).

This is why it is essential to wear retainers once you get out of braces to achieve long term orthodontic results. Your bone must fully re-
mineralize around that tooth to hold it in place. If not, your teeth will draft back into their original position before that bone fully forms (Lyros et al., 2023).

What Happens When Teeth Move Too Fast

Trying to speed up tooth movement with excessive force is not just counterproductive, it's also harmful. When moved too quickly, the PDL and surrounding bone cannot properly react in time. Too much force can compress the PDL so much that it loses blood supply. This creates a region of necrotic tissue known as hyalinization (Cuoghi et al., 2019). Here cells die and the normal bone remodeling comes to a stop. This can result in tooth movement to stop all together until your body can clear the damaged tissue. This can cause a delay in treatment taking several days and even weeks (Cuoghi et al., 2019).

Excessive force can also result in tooth root resorption. This is when the surface of the root is resorbed by the osteoclasts, which shortens the root. This is not something that can be regenerated, once the root of the tooth is gone, it’s gone for good. This can drastically reduce the long term stability of the tooth, and in some cases even kill the tooth (Dindaroğlu & Doğan, 2016).

Therefore faster isn’t better, it is biologically risky for long term tooth health.

Conclusion: A Perfect Blend of Biology and Precision

On the surface orthodontics may seem like mechanical engineering, but on the inside it is an intricate, living biological process. Your orthodontist applies force, your periodontal ligament senses this force, cells communicate with each other through biochemical signaling, osteoclasts and osteoclasts remodel your bone, and your tissues adapt. 

Your mouth is like a football team. The wires, brackets, teeth, tissues, and cells are your players, the orthodontist is your coach, and your beautiful smile at the end is the championship trophy. And just like all national championship teams, the process and rebuild takes time. There are no short cuts in becoming a champion, and there are no shortcuts in orthodontics.

Cuoghi, O. A., Topolski, F., de Faria, L. P., Ervolino, E., Micheletti, K. R., Miranda-Zamalloa, Y. M., Moresca, R., Moro, A., & de Mendonça, M. R. (2019). Correlation between pain and hyalinization during tooth movement induced by different types of force. The Angle orthodontist, 89(5), 788–796. https://doi.org/10.2319/041118-273.1

Dindaroğlu, F., & Doğan, S. (2016). Root Resorption in Orthodontics. Turkish journal of orthodontics, 29(4), 103–108. https://doi.org/10.5152/TurkJOrthod.2016.16021

Inchingolo, F., Inchingolo, A. M., Ceci, S., Carpentiere, V., Garibaldi, M., Riccaldo, L., Di Venere, D., Inchingolo, A. D., Malcangi, G., Palermo, A., Tartaglia, F. C., & Dipalma, G. (2023). Orthodontic Relapse after Fixed or Removable Retention Devices: A Systematic Review. Applied Sciences, 13(20), 11442. https://doi.org/10.3390/app132011442

Krishnan V, Davidovitch Z. On a path to unfolding the biological mechanisms of orthodontic tooth movement. J Dent Res. 2009 Jul;88(7):597-608. doi: 10.1177/0022034509338914. PMID: 19641146.

Li Y, Jacox LA, Little SH, Ko CC. Orthodontic tooth movement: The biology and clinical implications. Kaohsiung J Med Sci. 2018 Apr;34(4):207-214. doi: 10.1016/j.kjms.2018.01.007. Epub 2018 Feb 3. PMID: 29655409; PMCID: PMC11915602.

Li, Y., Zhan, Q., Bao, M., Yi, J., & Li, Y. (2021). Biomechanical and biological responses of periodontium in orthodontic tooth movement: up-date in a new decade. International journal of oral science, 13(1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41368-021-00125-5

Lyros, I., Tsolakis, I. A., Maroulakos, M. P., Fora, E., Lykogeorgos, T., Dalampira, M., & Tsolakis, A. I. (2023). Orthodontic Retainers-A Critical Review. Children (Basel, Switzerland), 10(2), 230. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10020230

Nakai Y, Praneetpong N, Ono W, Ono N. Mechanisms of Osteoclastogenesis in Orthodontic 

Tooth Movement and Orthodontically Induced Tooth Root Resorption. J Bone Metab. 2023 Nov;30(4):297-310. doi: 10.11005/jbm.2023.30.4.297. Epub 2023 Nov 30. PMID: 38073263; PMCID: PMC10721376.

Finger tip regeneration

 Early in the semester, we briefly talked about fingertip regeneration in genetics. This was a process completely unknown to me before. This drove my curiosity about what healing mechanism our fingertips have that the rest of our body lacks. 

Fingertip regeneration has 4 main phases:

Inflammation, Histolysis, Blastema, and Differentiation. 

Inflammation is the response to the digit tip amputation; a scab forms, bringing forth macrophages and neutrophils to distinct regions of the digit tip. 

Without macrophages being brought to the site of the amputation, the phase of histolysis does not begin. The histolysis phase presents enzymatic degradation resulting in the loss of organized tissues. Osteoclasts recruit to the site, resulting in a secondary amputation.  

Once the histolytic phase ends, the blastema phase begins. The blastema phase is an aggregation of undifferentiated cells that form between the proximal bone and stump. Paracrine signaling from surrounding tissue aids in influencing blastema proliferation. Lastly, the differentiation phase initiates regeneration from the proximal bone towards the distal end, building on the stump. 

What’s interesting about the process is that if any of these phases are altered or inhibited, it completely prevents regeneration of the finger tip from occurring.   

Dolan, C. P., Dawson, L. A., & Muneoka, K. (2018). Digit Tip Regeneration: Merging Regeneration Biology with Regenerative Medicine. Stem Cells Translational Medicine, 7(3). https://doi.org/10.1002/sctm.17-0236

When your immune system goes rogue...

From mild seasonal allergies to severe anaphylactic allergic reactions, most people have experienced some type of allergy in their life, but why are some so severe and some so mild? An allergic reaction in essence is the bodies overreaction to something not harmful being identified as a harmful. Allergies develop in two phases: sensitization and re-exposure. During sensitization, the body is experiencing the initial exposure, much like a vaccine. Specifically, dendritic cells are identifying the allergen. These dendritic cells then activate T-helper cells, which then signal the B-cells. The B-cells then produce IgE (immunoglobulin-E) antibodies for the given allergen which bind to mast cells. An IgE is not a type of cell, but rather a type of antibody. Through the entirety of this process, there is no presentation of symptoms yet. Symptoms begin to present during re-exposure when the allergen binds to the IgE cells created during the sensitization phase. Once the allergen is bound to the IgE cells, inflammatory chemicals such as histamines are introduced to the body. The overload of histamine is ultimately what creates the symptoms of an allergy. The difference between a mild allergy and anaphylaxis is the scale on which these inflammatory chemicals are distributed through the body. In a mild reaction, the release will be localized to one area of the body, while in an anaphylactic reaction, the release is widespread across the entire body. When inflammatory chemicals such as histamines flood the entire body so quickly, there are physiological effects that cause the classic symptoms of anaphylaxis such as vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, and smooth muscle constriction. Anaphylaxis is a life threatening condition, but can be counteracted by administering epinephrine. Epi is effective at treating anaphylaxis because it has the exact opposite effect on the body of inflammatory chemicals. Epinephrine constricts blood vessels, relaxes smooth muscles, and stabilizes mast cells to slow the release of inflammatory chemicals causing the reactions. There are many different types of allergic reactions, and just about anything can be an allergen to someone based on their genetics, environment, or microbiome to name a few. The underlying cause of an allergy can't be attributed to just one thing, but rather a multitude of different things all impact what one may be allergic to, and how severe that allergy is. 

American Academy of Allergy Asthma and Immunology. (2021). Allergic Reaction | AAAAI. Aaaai.org. https://www.aaaai.org/Tools-for-the-Public/Conditions-Library/Allergies/Allergic-Reactions

Chipps, B. (2022, August 31). What Is Epinephrine? | Allergy & Asthma Network. Allergy & Asthma Network. https://allergyasthmanetwork.org/anaphylaxis/what-is-epinephrine/

Janeway, C. A., Travers, P., Walport, M., & Shlomchik, M. J. (2012). Effector mechanisms in allergic reactions. Nih.gov; Garland Science. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27112/

The power of story telling

 I have always been a sucker for a good written story with deeply invested, developed characters. It is interesting how, despite us knowing a TV show or a book is fictional, we find ourselves so emotionally connected to the well-being of the character. We nearly jump out of our chairs through an emotionally heavy victory or sit in suspense when we have no idea what is about to happen next. 

“Experience taking” is a theory where, for the moments we are absorbed in a story, we lose the grasp of our own self and slip into the role of the character we are viewing. There is a deep connection we root ourselves onto a screen or page when we find attributes that we admire in characters. The story of these characters can inspire us to march more readily in our own battles in life, or sit with genuine fear and heartbreak when such an emotionally loved character is killed. 

I bring up this topic because a beloved character I followed through three books died, and it genuinely sent me into a small depression. The concept of something that is not real having the ability to cause a physiological toll on the body, I found fascinating. When it comes to our emotional cortex, the somatosensory cortex is involved in the emotional reaction of seeing others in pain, creating our sense of empathy. This cortex is connected to the amygdala and insula, further indicating its role in emotion recognition. When this cortex is disrupted, and it is not able to properly regulate emotions, individuals can find themselves with disorders such as depression, anxiety, and bipolar disorder.    

Dill-Shackleford, K. E., Vinney, C., & Hopper-Losenicky, K. (2016). Connecting the dots between fantasy and reality: The social psychology of our engagement with fictional narrative and its functional value. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 10(11). https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12274

Kropf, E., Syan, S. K., Minuzzi, L., & Frey, B. N. (2019). From anatomy to function: the role of the somatosensory cortex in emotional regulation. In Revista brasileira de psiquiatria (Sao Paulo, Brazil : 1999) (Vol. 41, Issue 3). https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2018-0183

Just one shot?

There are many different ways that people take care of themselves and their health. Hand hygiene, medication, doctors visits, and so much more. What about preventative medicine? In a society as interconnected as we are, a single illness has the capacity to claim countless lives and disrupt society as a whole. Over decades, even centuries, of research scientists have battled these diseases and viruses and given us the most critical tool to maintain our health: vaccines. Our health, and more specifically the health of our children, is at the forefront of nearly everyone's mind. With a discovery as ground-breaking and effective as vaccines, why are we seeing a decline in childhood vaccination rates coupled with an increase in cases of thought to be eradicated diseases? Vaccines are effective because of a series of immune events that “train” our body to recognize, attack, and fight off these viruses if they are ever naturally encountered. First, vaccines contain antigens. Antigens are a substance, such as a dead virus, which triggers an immune response via memory B-cells. This initial immune response triggers the start of antibody production. An antibody is the specific white blood cells that are produced from B-cells so that they can bind to antigens to signal to the rest of the immune system that it is foreign, or to directly target the antigen itself. Vaccines are a kickstart for the immune system to have been exposed to in a safe and controlled manner so that the slow, specific nature of the adaptive immune system has time to prepare for a possible infection. While this is the general guiding principle for vaccines, there are also a multitude of different types of vaccines based on the structure of the pathogen being defended against. For example, the MMR vaccine is a live vaccine, whereas the flu vaccine is a subunit vaccine. A live vaccine means that a weaker or inactive version of the pathogen is being used to initiate the immune responses previously discussed. In a subunit vaccine, only fragments of the pathogen are being used to initiate the immune response. There is not one single vaccine that will be effective against all pathogens, but scientists have tailored each individual vaccine to the specific pathogen so that the method of introduction to the immune system is the most effective strategy to properly equip the immune system for possible infection. 

Adaptive immunity. (2018). Khan Academy. https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/organ-systems/the-immune-system/a/adaptive-immunity

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024, August 10). Explaining How Vaccines Work. Vaccines & Immunizations; CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/basics/explaining-how-vaccines-work.html

Pollard, A. J., & Bijker, E. M. (2020). A Guide to vaccinology: from Basic Principles to New Developments. Nature Reviews Immunology, 21(21), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-020-00479-7

Heartcrack

 As you all may have noticed at this point, I am a big basketball fan. No real hiding that. And it would be a crime to not include one of the most bizarre cases of physiology in sports in my third blog post. In class last week, we talked about Len Bias. He was one of the best collegiate players of all time. Bias was so good that he was picked second in the 1986 NBA draft. Sorry, Dr. Campisi, he was not selected before Michael Jordan. But he was selected 2nd in
his draft class while Jordan was selected 3rd in his draft class. Anyway, Bias had a big problem. He was addicted to cocaine use. And for obvious reasons that was not an ideal activity to participate in as an NBA player. Similar to Isaiah Austin, his dreams of the NBA would end too soon. But this time, it was fatal. 

    For this blog post, I want to take a different look into the physiology of the heart. The approach this time around is to focus on how drug use affects the heart and how it can lead to eventual heart failure. In Len Bias’ case, he died from cardiac arrhythmia just two days after being drafted. This was induced by cocaine overdose unfortunately, something he could just let go of during the crack epidemic of the 1980s. 

If you do not know already, cocaine is a very addictive stimulant drug that is made from leaves of the coca plant. It happens to be a strong central nervous stimulant that operates by affecting the fight or flight state. In doing so, it will increase heart rate rapidly as well as blood pressure to induce heightened feelings of euphoria. As a conspiracy theorist, I find myself believing that crack cocaine was planted by the government into African American communities across the US. I actually just finished watching Snowfall: a show about the rise of crack cocaine and the money that was involved in the business in the streets of Los Angeles, California. But this is a conversation for another day. Crack cocaine is made through a process of using baking soda and water to create a crystal form. Smoking it can provide a short rush, while snorting it can provide a longer lasting effect. Len, unfortunately, was doing both. Due to the snorting and smoking of the crack cocaine, he had become prone to eventual damage of the heart, strokes, seizures, and respiratory failure. The drug is unfortunately highly addictive due to how it tricks the reward system in the brain responsible for dopamine. By hijacking it, those who get hooked onto crack cocaine have a very difficult time refraining from using it again. 

How does this primarily affect the heart? I am glad you asked. Crack cocaine is monikered as the “perfect heart attack drug”. This is because of its ability to increase the heart rate and force the heart to work in high demand while simultaneously restricting blood flow. Cocaine begins by releasing stress hormones that contribute to the heart being overstimulated and constricting the blood vessels through vasoconstriction. Because the heart requires more oxygen due to the increased activity from the workload to beat, the vasoconstriction of the blood vessels significantly depletes the oxygen supply to the heart. In doing so, Len and others are prone to physical damage to the heart, pain, and shortness of breath. The tissue damage from this lack of oxygen will lead to myocardial infarction, where crack cocaine users are far more likely to deal with the lasting effects of atrophy in this organ. In class, we have learned about the importance of sodium and potassium channels in regulating heart rate. They control the electrical signals that enable the heartbeat to occur. The sodium channels will begin a depolarization of the

action potential, and this leads to a beat. The potassium channels are crucial for repolarization, which enables the heart to contract. With the autonomic nervous system, the opening and closing of the channels regulate the rate at which the heart beats. Cocaine specifically blocks these channels from operating regularly, and it thereby affects the rhythm of the heart. Because of this, heavy crack cocaine users are more subject to ventricular fibrillation and asystole, where the heart will eventually stop beating at all. And similar to my last post, aortic dissection can occur from the extremely sudden rise in blood pressure. The rupturing of the aorta will always prove to be fatal. 

Long time users of crack cocaine are unfortunately prone to coronary artery disease, heart failure, structural damage to the heart, or coronary artery aneurysms. Unfortunately from Len Bias, we can learn a lot. The short high you can obtain from these drugs are just not worth it in the long run. Imagine being the second pick of the NBA draft and you lose it all. Len was a great person and he still was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 2021. His death taught many a lesson about the influences surrounding drug usage and why it is imperative to take responsibility in your decisions. His death allowed for congress to push the Anti-Drug Act of 1986 to sharpen the penalties of crack use and solve a bigger drug problem rampant in the 80s. Different sport organizations across the country increased their policies on screening after that point. His “what if” story probably prevented more from occurring. Len Bias’ story will continue to be told for generations to come.

  
References

Cowart, V. (1986). National concern about drug abuse brings athletes under unusual scrutiny. JAMA.
https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/362944

Havakuk, O., Rezkalla, S. H., & Kloner, R. A. (2017). The cardiovascular effects of cocaine. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 70(1), 101–113.
https://www.acc.org/latest-in-cardiology/ten-points-to-remember/2017/06/27/13/58/the-cardiovascular-effects-of-cocaine

Miranda, C. H., & Pazin-Filho, A. (2013). Crack cocaine-induced cardiac conduction abnormalities are reversed by sodium bicarbonate infusion. Case Reports in Medicine.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3677010/

Papadodima, S., & Martrille, L. (2009). Cocaine-induced cardiac alterations: Histological and immunohistochemical post-mortem analysis. Diagnostics.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12026069/

Smialek, J. E. (1986). Bias died of cocaine intoxication. The Washington Post.

https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1986/06/25/bias-died-of-cocaine-intoxication/180e831a-aaa5-4554-8208-73278e57d5ef/

My Gut Microbiome Hates Me and I Hate It Back.

 So you think that your kidneys judging you is bad? My gut microbiome is a bad roommate, she turns off the lights at eight, throws out my new leftovers, and texts me paragraphs  about i should try a gluten and lactose free diet. Will I listen? no. But, I can tell you guys about how your microbiome can love you or make you question food as a calorie source. 

 Your gut is home to trillions of microbes — bacteria, yeasts and other that help digest food, modulate immunity and keep things in balance. When that balance gets disrupted,(like if you decide to eat a piece of bread), it can trigger chaos reactions in the microbiome. 

And its not just about lacking the enzymes to digest gluten and lactose, recent studies have show that the composition of the gut microbiome strongly influences whether lactose or gluten gets processed smoothly, or it turns into a roommate revolt(she emailed the landlord). A 2024 genome wide analysis using MiBioGen data found that certain bacterial families, for example Veillonellaceae— might protects against lactose intolerance while others (Anaerotruncus and Eubacterium rectale group) increases risk. 

For gluten related conditions like Celiac disease, certain microbes influences how the immune system responds to gluten peptides, or affect the gut barrier, causing leaky gut.  

How to survive your roommate? A varied diet with fiber rich veggies, fermented food prebiotics can help feed good microbes and helps them out compete the troublemakers, however this research is still in progress. 

In the mean time, will I stop pissing off my roommate by eating mac and cheese everyday? .....probably not.  

 

Han, Z., Ran, Y., Li, J., Zhang, X., Yang, H., Liu, J., Dong, S., Jia, H., Yang, Z., Li, Y., Guo, L., Zhou, S., Bao, S., Yuan, W., Wang, B., & Zhou, L. (2024). Association of gut microbiota with lactose intolerance and coeliac disease: a two-sample Mendelian randomization study. Frontiers in nutrition, 11, 1395801. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2024.1395801

 

Balaban, D. V., Enache, I., Balaban, M., David, R. A., Vasile, A.-D., Popp, A., & Jinga, M. (2025). Outcomes in Adults with Celiac Disease Following a Gluten-Free Diet. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 14(14), 5144. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14145144  

 

Like.. you sweat because your cold?

One of my friends asked me earlier today about cold sweats and how she hates them because she's asked so many people about them and feels like she's the only one who has them right now. I mentioned that today we discussed thermoregulation, and she asked about cold sweats. I knew they existed, but I thought they were linked as a sign of an infection or disease. After researching it a little bit more, I realized that her response might be a stress or hormonal response rather than an infection or a heart attack (heart attack being from Google AI - never use this for information). This stress response is cool because sweating is typically a response to your body temperature being too high, and allowing your body to release body heat. However, in this sense, there is nothing your body needs to release. Such a weird thing to think about, since a cold sweat is just a stress response, but can also be a sign of SO many other things. They are literally cold-sweating as we speak. 

Source : https://www.bannerhealth.com/healthcareblog/teach-me/cold-and-clammy-causes-of-cold-sweats-and-how-to-treat-them

Flavor Sensing Bean Bois.

 

 

 In my quest of completing this assignment I procrastinated on, I decided to research silly things that sound insane, but it is true!

 First, your adipose tissue and taste buds are not the only parts of your body judging your late night ramen choices — your kidneys are judging you too! A 2017 study at Liang et all found that bitter taste receptors, the same ones we have on our tongue, are active and functional in our kidney tubular cells. T2R bitter taste receptors, a GPCRs receptor(not going away!), have shown that primary tubular epithelial cells express multiple T2R receptors which can respond to bitter compounds. When activated, they trigger intercellular calcium signaling, same on your tongue! This may influence functions of the kidneys, like fluid handling, electrolyte balance and tubular defence mechanisms. The kidney may be tasting bitter compounds to help protect the body by altering how it concentrates urine or handles solutes. Like the chemicals like cyanide, it tastes bitter — which may allow it to be a early warning signal for the body. For research, taste receptors in the kidneys could be targets for drugs that alter sodium handling, fluid balance, or blood pressure. 

So, when you are raiding your pantry studying for our finals, think about your poor kidneys and all the hard work that they do! 

Liang, J., Chen, F., Gu, F., Liu, X., Li, F., & Du, D. (2017). Expression and functional activity of bitter taste receptors in primary renal tubular epithelial cells and M-1 cells. Molecular and cellular biochemistry, 428(1-2), 193–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11010-016-2929-1

Snakes are not friends

 I would think of myself as an animal lover. Furry things with four legs I consider cute, and I might even be able to tolerate iguanas. However, a snake, you wouldn’t see me in the same room. 

Here is why: 

You see, we have this amazing thing in our bodies called blood, which performs many vital functions such as carrying oxygen and nutrients to the body’s cells and tissues. Blood is composed of plasma, red blood cells, platelets, and white blood cells. Blood plays a role in protecting our body from infections, making clots, and is used to maintain blood pressure with the use of our cardiovascular system. 

Now, snakes with venom can drastically alter and disrupt blood and blood vessels. Snake venom can fall into three different groups: neurotoxic (characterised by its ability to cause paralysis), cytotoxic (characterised by its ability to cause swelling and blistering at the site of a snake bite), and haemotoxicity, which has cardiovascular effects that drastically drop blood pressure. 

One of the toxins involved in doing this is called SVMPs (Slagboom et al., 2017). SVMPs increase vascular permeability by degrading the capillary basement membranes, causing a leakage overall reducing blood pressure and initiating hemorrhaging (Gutierrez et al, 2016). 

Despite all of the negative contributions haemotoxins can cause on the body, they can have a pharmaceutical use. Bradykinin is a component of this venom that has been used for medication as an ACE inhibitor. One of the first mainstream drugs developed was Captopril through its inhibition, prevents vasoconstriction, making it a useful drug that can lower blood pressure for patients who deal with high blood pressure. 

This goes to show snakes may have a decent purpose… I suppose, and those guys who go on snake hunts may not be as crazy as they seem. 

Gutiérrez, J. M., Escalante, T., Rucavado, A., & Herrera, C. (2016). Hemorrhage caused by snake venom metalloproteinases: A journey of discovery and understanding. In Toxins (Vol. 8, Issue 4). https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8040093

Slagboom, J., Kool, J., Harrison, R. A., & Casewell, N. R. (2017). Haemotoxic snake venoms: their functional activity, impact on snakebite victims and pharmaceutical promise. British Journal of Haematology, 177(6), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1111/BJH.14591;PAGEGROUP:STRING:PUBLICATION